Due to its specific climatic conditions and geographical location from the glacial period, RSM has a rich floral diversity of about 210 families, 920 genera and about 3700 plant species, a large number of which are endemic plants.
NSSHP- Non-stemmed forest products
MAR- Medicinal and aromatic herbs
LAR- Medicinal and aromatic plants
In the Republic of North Macedonia, there is a long tradition in collecting medicinal plants, mushrooms, lichens and numerous forest fruits. Due to its specific climatic conditions and geographical location from the glacial period, it has a rich floral diversity of about 210 families, 920 genera and about 3700 plant species, a large number of which are endemic plants. About 700 species have scientific data on their medicinal or aromatic properties, and a large number of these species are used in our traditional medicine. Out of 700 species of medicinal and aromatic plants in RSM, about 220 species are commonly used. According to the Biodiversity Strategy and its Action Plan for the period 2018-2023, the most commonly collected fruits are: blue juniper fruit, bearberry, sharplanin tea, St. John’s wort, wild oregano, wild mint, primrose root and flower, valerian root, anise, rosehip, blueberry, raspberry, blackberry, elderberry, black mallow, marshmallow root, nettle seeds and roots, etc. This also includes several types of fungi: boletus, egg mushroom, chanterelle, hedgehog, ruddy, black trumpet, morel, black morel, lily of the valley, and meadowsweet (Strategy for biological diversity and action plan for the period 2018-2023, 2018). Affected and protected wild species received formal international recognition for their importance in 2000 when the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) included them in the Forest Resource Assessment Program and since then their economic valuation has become more important. The Republic of North Macedonia has developed mechanisms that ensure the sustainable use of natural resources for the development of the local economy. Starting from the fact that 42% of the population in RSM lives in a rural environment (MTSP, 2019), a large part of them are engaged as collectors for their own needs or for sale who hold a license for their work.
Ecosystem services
Forests and related ecosystems represent an important source of many endangered and protected wild plant and fungal species (WFP). In addition to the fact that gathering is a traditional activity of the population living near the forests, it has significantly decreased during the period of industrialization of the RSM, but in the last period, there is an increase in the trend of gathering due to the increased market for trade. Sustainability in the use of NTFPs depends on two parameters: biological diversity and their availability. Healthy and preserved ecosystems have a greater potential to produce forest fruits, mushrooms, medicinal and aromatic plants and bee products. NTFP sources play a key role in the livelihood of the local population, which in turn plays a crucial role in the sustainability of the resources.
The collection and sale of affected and protected wild species of plants, fungi and animals and their parts is prescribed in the Law on Nature Protection and is carried out only after a previously obtained permit for collection (Article 23) or a permit/certificate for sale (Article 30), issued by the Minister of Environment and Spatial Planning. According to the Law, the total amount of affected and protected wild species of plants, fungi, animals and their parts that are collected for commercial purposes should be determined on the basis of the previous assessment of the condition of the species and the opinion of scientific and professional organizations on the population density of endangered species in natural habitats for each year. In connection with the implementation of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Wild Flora and Fauna, the Government of the Republic of North Macedonia has a series of regulations, among which the Decree on the method and procedure for issuing the permit, i.e. the certificate for determining the border crossings through which trade can be carried out with affected and protected wild species of plants, fungi, animals and their parts, Decree on the manner of dealing with trade in affected and protected wild species of plants, fungi, animals and their parts by customs authorities, other competent authorities and services at border crossings and scientific and professional institutions, as well as authorized depositories of confiscated samples during illegal trade, Regulations for Issuing Permits for the Collection of Affected and Protected Wild Species of Plants, Fungi and Animals and Their Parts and Lists of Affected and Protected Wild Species of Plants, Fungi and animals and their parts which were adopted in 2012.
Medicinal plants and berries are in great demand in the European pharmaceutical market, and their regulation puts continuous pressure on the state to regulate their proper use and maintenance. According to the analysis of the use of wild species of plants and fungi in the Republic of North Macedonia, the sustainable use of non-timber forest products (NTFP) is of key importance for the preservation of biological diversity. The biggest threat is the excessive and uncontrolled collection of these resources that do not grow in unlimited quantities. For example, in Slovenia, where such permits are also issued for a specific area, only a certain amount can be purchased, which is the result of analysis by experts who make a selection of natural resources.
Management of protected wild species of plants and fungi
More than 22,500 species of fungi, plants and animals live in North Macedonia. The risk of extinction for more than 1,100 of these has been assessed globally, resulting in 110 species listed as threatened on the global Red List. More than 1,000 species in North Macedonia are endemic. The Law on Nature Protection foresees measures for the protection of species and habitats, the declaration of protected areas and natural rarities, the establishment of an ecological network, the protection of the landscape and the protection of minerals and fossils. In addition to the general measures for the protection of species and the prohibited activities provided for by the Law on Nature Protection (Article 21), special measures for the protection of species are also foreseen, such as the Red Book of endangered species, the declaration of strictly protected and protected wild species, measures for protection of internationally protected species, control of collection and trade with affected and protected wild species of plants, fungi and animals, keeping and breeding of wild animal species in captivity and their return to nature. The Red List contains scientific information and analyses on the status and threat of species in order to encourage policy makers to pay special attention to endangered species and to create appropriate strategies, programs and actions for the conservation of biological diversity. Endangered wild species have the status of natural heritage and are categorized as critically endangered or vulnerable wild species that can be declared as strictly protected or protected wild species. The lists for determining strictly protected (194 species of which 9 species of fungi, 51 plants and 134 species of animals) and protected wild species of plants, fungi and animals (a total of 820 species of which 75 fungi, 151 plants and 594 animals) have been determined without to determine their affected status. Unfortunately, the situation is similar with most lists that do not specify the criteria by which strictly protected and protected species are regulated. Prohibited activities (destruction, cutting, disturbance) are prescribed for strictly protected species, and measures and activities for their protection and way of use have not yet been prescribed for protected wild species. The protection of resources used by nature (plants and fungi) is not set as a strategic goal of all involved institutions and represents a major problem, the responsibility remains undefined, and therefore the control and handling of all related threats to plant resources is inadequately addressed .
There is an alarming situation with the population of the protected species of bear grape (Uvin tea) . In 2005, for the first time, a ban on the collection of bear grapes was adopted by the Ministry of Education and Culture for a period of 5 years. After the ban of 5 years, in 2009 the largest amount of export of bear grapes was recorded (180 t), which is three times more than the average annual harvested amount in previous years. There are several assumptions as an explanation for this phenomenon. The first assumption is that the collection of the species continued in the following years, even though the collection ban was in force, but the bear grapes were stored and not exported. The second assumption is that after this extended period of non-harvesting, the bear grape population almost tripled. This is a less plausible assumption since it is not possible for the population to triple in this short period. As indicated above, the growth of the species is slow and its recovery is not possible in a short period of time. It is possible for the population to recover in 5 years, but not to increase three times. The third assumption is that after the moratorium, as a result of greater interest from the local population due to good market prices, there was a mass gathering of bear grapes.
Considering the fact that the bear grape in the surrounding countries has the status of a protected species, and on the other hand, taking into account the exported quantities from RSM in the previous 25 years, it can be safely said that the species is under the threat of over-exploitation. In order to preserve the biological diversity of the country, it is necessary to take appropriate measures to limit the exploitation of the species in their natural habitats.
Collection and trade with affected and protected wild species of plants and fungi
Research has shown that 60 percent of the territory of Macedonia can meet the conditions of the EU or the conventions to be declared protected areas. But the interventions in nature change the animals, and the breeding conditions, which can easily turn into endangered species.
The lack of data on affected and protected wild species of plants and fungi creates a major problem with the analysis in RSM. Sources of information about these plant resources are obtained from reports of some projects, data from the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, and the State Statistics Office. The main problem in the State Statistics Office is that affected and protected wild species of plants and fungi are not categorized as such or as NTFP or wild products, but are included in agriculture and/or divided into different types of products (vegetables, fruits, semi-processed products etc.). In addition, the collection and use of NTFPs by the forestry sector is oriented towards wood as a resource and therefore it is relatively easier to find data on firewood or technical wood, and much more difficult to find data on NTFPs.
Collection is unregulated. Although control exists as an obligation and is mentioned in legislative instruments, it is not sufficiently implemented in practice. The entities that manage a certain area must find the balance between preserving biological diversity and stimulating the local economy, and good inter-institutional cooperation and coordination is of crucial importance. The management of plant resources is divided between two administrations (PE “National Forests” and PE “National Parks”), and is carried out by several institutions that do not yet have a well-established system for coordination and exchange of information. Entities responsible for forest management (have a legal obligation to determine the type, quantity, place (location), method and time of collection in a sustainable manner through a special form. Unfortunately, at the moment this obligation is not fully implemented, i.e. often the form is unfilled for a number of reasons, which are mostly related to the lack of human resources or financial resources. For this purpose, institutions must be a factor in the application of plant resource policies in terms of organization, laws, procedures and stakeholders, such as and coordinating the process of operational and financial investments, strengthening and improvement of professional capacities, inventory of plant resources, protection and collection of species from nature, their processing, trade and control.The list of affected and protected wild species of plants and fungi that can to be collected, including only species of commercial interest, which are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, should be additionally harmonized with the revised list of species by the Ministry of Agriculture.
Herbs and mushrooms are not harvested properly. There are special methods for picking the mushroom with a knife, it is stored in a basket and not in bags like the collectors do now . It’s the same with medicinal herbs, the whole root is cut and the flowers should be cut. With insufficient knowledge, people contributed to the extinction of a large part of the plants on the mountains.
The collectors are an unrecognized and fragmented group that faces numerous problems due to the lack of organized association. The number of collectors varies and is different according to different reports, and there are no official registers, lists or data for them. Conflict situations between collectors can potentially be avoided if collection permits are issued for a well-defined area, such as grazing concessions. There is no proper balance between the state, businesses and collectors in terms of earnings and labor valuation, it is normal for businesses that have large investments to earn more, but collectors are never properly paid for the products they collect, and they are not educated enough ( and equipped) so that they can do something more with the raw harvested product. It is interesting to note here that there is a difference in the VAT rate given by the collectors and companies. According to the collectors, the average price for 1 kg of mushrooms on the market in RSM is 115 denars, for aromatic and medicinal plants it is 92 denars, for berries and other fruits it is 73 denars and for other VAT (rod, moss) it is 50 denars. According to the companies, the average price for buying mushrooms ranges between 240-300 denars, medical and aromatic installments (MAR) from 180 denars to 250 denars and berries and other fruits from 90 to 120 denars, depending on the type and quality of VAT . Other activities that affect the price of VAT are the purchase, transport and packaging.
At the moment, the Republic of North Macedonia does not have accurate data on the quantities of resources that are most often exploited and traded on the domestic market and outside the country. Restrictions exist only for endangered and rare species of plants and fungi, but accurate information on the control of restrictions is not available. In order to ensure a greater value of this valuable resource, the state should direct support to the primary links, which are the collectors and processors. In addition, the total value of VAT has not been calculated and is not included in the GDP, and it could have a great role for the rural population and contribute to the prevention of migration (village-city) and to the improvement of the local and national economy.
Not having enough redemption points close to collection sites is also one of the bigger problems facing the state and the VAT sector. In general, collectors only deal with the collection and very limited activities in the VAT processing process, with certain exceptions.
For mushrooms, there are two harvesting periods that last 15 days each. The purchase of the mushrooms on the first level is in the village store, and then on the second level, they are sold to buyers who go around from village to village. Mushroom picking is paid in cash, except for field pickers, who may exchange other goods or services.
Most of the collected products are sold, and only a small part is used for the collectors’ own needs, as a result of the long-standing tradition of home use (for marmalades, juices or for traditional medicine, teas, etc.).
The sale of plant resources collected from nature is mainly aimed at export. The entire quantities of plant resources are exported as unprocessed or semi-processed products and thus the added value of the products intended for the end users (consumers) does not remain in the country.
The countries where mushrooms are exported the most are Italy, France and Germany with 92% of the total export of mushrooms. The largest part of the export of aromatic and medicinal plants, about 76%, is exported to the USA, Serbia and Russia. The export of berries and other fruits is 99% to Europe, namely to Italy, Germany and Serbia. Other VATs such as juniper berries, rose hips and blackberries are exported to Germany and Italy with 85% of the total amount of other VATs . In terms of lichen exports, most are exported to Morocco, Spain and France, while other export markets are rarer and with much smaller quantities. The market of fresh berries shows a growing trend and the main market for them is with our neighbor Serbia.
As for MAP, herbs and spices, RSM exports a range of products. It is believed that the export value of tinctures, essential oils and ready-made herbal teas is approximately EUR 10 million per year. It is not clear what part of this is wild-harvested products and what part is cultivated. Of the teas, three or four types produced in RSM are organically certified, and some medicinal herbal products have also been developed, such as Ohrid tea, a species with a geographical name and known origin that is registered in the State Industrial Property Office; St. John’s wort oil, Good Nature teas (organic teas produced in a strictly controlled environment, certified for organic production of safe food) and Bil-ol-gel, as protected trade marks brands manufactured by the pharmaceutical company Alkaloid.
Cultivation of medicinal plants and fruits is a modern tendency in constant growth in Europe and the world in order to satisfy the need of pharmacy. More than 70% of the newly registered drugs are of plant origin, and more and more products are produced from medicinal plants. For these reasons, the trade in affected and protected wild species of plants and fungi is increasingly widespread. The annual growth of trade in medicinal plants from RSM on the world market is 2.4% in volume and 9% in value .
The pharmaceutical industry uses cultivated plantations, as opposed to wild ones (such as the regions of the collectors) to be able to respond to meet the required quantities. Cultivation is additionally used to segment certain subspecies of plants with certain characteristics in order to obtain more valuable material. The most commonly cultivated species are lavender, Italian straw flower, mint, lemon balm, oregano and others.
Plantation is a good approach to protect natural habitats and to overcome the needs of rare species for which there is a lack of market at the same time.
Global trends
The United Nations announces that due to the exploitation of biodiversity in nature, the disappearance of over a million species of plants and animals, and the acceleration in the loss of endemic species, it is necessary to change the way and awareness of food and energy production. The UN report on biological diversity points out that the exploitation of nature by the human factor is in a downward trend, natural conditions have been altered and cannot provide clean air and water and good soil and states the projections that by 2050 over 25 million kilometers of new roads will be built at the expense of nature. At the same time, it is noted that industrial agriculture and intensive fishing are also among the main causes of species extinction. Of course, there are climate changes caused by the use of fossil fuels .
Preservation of biological diversity in our country cannot be achieved only through measures and activities in protected areas. Namely, significant parts of ecosystems that are under significant human influence are not covered by the system of protected areas (services related to food, medicines, drinking water, raw materials, erosion control, circulation of substances, etc.). Forest and agricultural ecosystems that are actively managed represent the most significant example. By applying a sustainable approach to the regulation of natural resources, ecological processes and functions can be restored, especially those that provide services that are essential to people. It is therefore necessary to identify the pressures on ecosystems that provide essential services for human well-being. For critical ecosystems that provide important services, it is necessary to take conservation or revitalization measures.